Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces - Revision history

Joanna at 18:28, 4 October 2011

2011-10-04T18:28:12Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:28, 4 October 2011
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	= Brain-Machine Interfaces =		= Brain-Machine Interfaces =
	<br><br>		<br><br>
	The first practical steps of augmenting human capability through a close coupling of man and machine have their origins in Ivan Sutherland’s work at MIT and the University of Utah and in work by the generation of students Sutherland and his colleague, David Evans, trained at the University of Utah. Having launched the field of interactive computer-aided design in his dissertation project, Sketchpad, between 1965-1968 Sutherland pursued an ambitious project to create what he called “[http://Citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.136.3720&rep=rep1&type=pdf the ultimate display],” an augmented reality system in which computer generated images of all sorts could be overlaid on scenes viewed through a head-mounted camera display system. Among the visionary suggestions Sutherland made in this early work was that interaction with the computer need not be based on keyboard or joystick linkages but could be controlled through computer-based sensing of the positions of almost any of our body muscles; and going further, he noted that while gestural control through hands and arms were obvious choices, machines to sense and interpret eye motion data could and would be built. “An interesting experiment, he claimed, “will be to make the display presentation depend on where we look.” Sutherland’s work inspired Scott Fisher, Brenda Laurel, and Jaron Lanier, the inventors of the dataglove and first virtual reality and telepresence systems at NASA-Ames Research Center, and Tom Furness at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio, who developed his own version of the ultimate display, based on eye and gesture tracking as a quasi “Darth-Vader Helmet” and integrated virtual cockpit. Furness was trying to solve problems of how humans interact with very complex machines, particularly the new high-tech F-16, F-14 and F-18 fighter planes, which were becoming so complicated that the amount of information a fighter pilot had to assimilate from the cockpit's instruments and command communications had become overwhelming. Furness’ solution was a cockpit that fed 3-D sensory information directly to the pilot, who could then fly by nodding and pointing his way through a simulated landscape below. [http://www.livingbooksaboutlife.org/books/Neurofutures (more...)]

	These pathbreaking projects on augmented and virtual reality, and telepresence controlled by gesture and eye-tracking systems inspired a number of visionary efforts over the next generation to go all the way in creating the ultimate display by eliminating the screen and tethered systems depicted above altogether by directly interfacing brains and machines. In what follows I will trace lines of synergy and convergence among several areas of neuroscience, genetics, engineering, and computational media that have given rise to brain/computer/machine interfaces that may at first glance seem like the stuff of science fiction or the techno-enthusiast predictions of Singularians and Transhumanists but may be closer than you think to being realized and quite possibly transforming human being as we know it in radical ways. I begin with work in brain-machine interfaces currently used in therapeutic neuroprosthetics emanating from the pioneering work of the Utah Intracortical Electrode Array, engage with the visionary speculations neuroengineers such as Miguel Nicolelis at Duke on their future deployment in ubiquitous computing networks, and contemplate the implications of these prospective developments for reconfigured selves. The second area I will explore is the convergence of work in the cognitive neurosciences on the massive role of affect in decision making and the leveraging of next-generation social media and smart devices as the “brain-machine” interfaces for measuring, data mining, modeling, and mapping affect in strategies to empower individuals to be more efficient, productive, and satisfied members of human collectives. If these speculations have merit, we may want to invest in “neurofutures”—very soon.

	Since the late 1990s the fields of brain sciences and neuroengineering have produced an astonishing array of discoveries that hold out the prospect of far reaching medical advances for the treatment of paralysis, limb loss, and a number of neurological impairments by interfacing intact neural structures with artificial neuroprosthetics devices. Among the most successful and justly celebrated sensory neuroprosthetics devices are cochlear and retinal implants that use electrical stimulation to recreate or partially restore perceptual capability. Niels Birnbaumer (Tübingen University) and his colleagues have developed brain-machine interfaces using scalp electroencephalography (EEG) signals which address critical clinical problems such as communication in “locked-in” patients and movement restoration in patients with spinal cord lesions and chronic stroke. Recently Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology has also been used for non-medical purposes, giving rise to a new generation of measurement devices that allow access and decoding of macroscopic brain states such as attention, performance capability, and emotion, in real-time. The signals extracted by BCI techniques are then used to improve and optimize man–machine interaction, enhancing human performance and even developing novel types of skills. Benjamin Blankertz, Michael Tangermann, Klaus-Robert Müller and their colleagues at the Machine Learning Lab of the TU Berlin have recently extended these devices into interfaces for videogames and other forms of interactive entertainment.		Since the late 1990s the fields of brain sciences and neuroengineering have produced an astonishing array of discoveries that hold out the prospect of far reaching medical advances for the treatment of paralysis, limb loss, and a number of neurological impairments by interfacing intact neural structures with artificial neuroprosthetics devices. Among the most successful and justly celebrated sensory neuroprosthetics devices are cochlear and retinal implants that use electrical stimulation to recreate or partially restore perceptual capability. Niels Birnbaumer (Tübingen University) and his colleagues have developed brain-machine interfaces using scalp electroencephalography (EEG) signals which address critical clinical problems such as communication in “locked-in” patients and movement restoration in patients with spinal cord lesions and chronic stroke. Recently Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology has also been used for non-medical purposes, giving rise to a new generation of measurement devices that allow access and decoding of macroscopic brain states such as attention, performance capability, and emotion, in real-time. The signals extracted by BCI techniques are then used to improve and optimize man–machine interaction, enhancing human performance and even developing novel types of skills. Benjamin Blankertz, Michael Tangermann, Klaus-Robert Müller and their colleagues at the Machine Learning Lab of the TU Berlin have recently extended these devices into interfaces for videogames and other forms of interactive entertainment.

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	== ''References''<br> ==		== ''References''<br> ==

	Sutherland, Ivan E.  "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.91.3584&rep=rep1&type=pdf A Head-Mounted Three Dimensional Display." In ''Proceedings of the December 9-11, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference'', part I, 757-64]. San Francisco, California: ACM, 1968.<br><br>Furness, Thomas A. III. "The Super Cockpit and Its Human Factors Challenges."''Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting Proceedings'' 30, no. 1 (1986 ): 48-52.<br><br>Furness, Thomas A. III, and Dean F. Kocian. "[http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-86-1/ Putting Humans into Virtual Space]." Technical Report, Human Interface Technology Lab, University of Washington (1986).<br><br>Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>		Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>

Joanna at 18:26, 4 October 2011

2011-10-04T18:26:45Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:26, 4 October 2011
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	== ''References''<br> ==		== ''References''<br> ==

	Sutherland, Ivan E.  "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.91.3584&rep=rep1&type=pdf A Head-Mounted Three Dimensional Display." In ''Proceedings of the December 9-11, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference'', part I, 757-64]. San Francisco, California: ACM, 1968.<br>Furness, Thomas A. III. "The Super Cockpit and Its Human Factors Challenges."''Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting Proceedings'' 30, no. 1 (1986 ): 48-52.<br>Furness, Thomas A. III, and Dean F. Kocian. "[http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-86-1/ Putting Humans into Virtual Space]." Technical Report, Human Interface Technology Lab, University of Washington (1986).<br><br>Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>		Sutherland, Ivan E.  "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.91.3584&rep=rep1&type=pdf A Head-Mounted Three Dimensional Display." In ''Proceedings of the December 9-11, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference'', part I, 757-64]. San Francisco, California: ACM, 1968.<br><br>Furness, Thomas A. III. "The Super Cockpit and Its Human Factors Challenges."''Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting Proceedings'' 30, no. 1 (1986 ): 48-52.<br><br>Furness, Thomas A. III, and Dean F. Kocian. "[http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-86-1/ Putting Humans into Virtual Space]." Technical Report, Human Interface Technology Lab, University of Washington (1986).<br><br>Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>

Joanna at 18:26, 4 October 2011

2011-10-04T18:26:06Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:26, 4 October 2011
Line 3:		Line 3:
	= Brain-Machine Interfaces =		= Brain-Machine Interfaces =
	<br><br>		<br><br>
			The first practical steps of augmenting human capability through a close coupling of man and machine have their origins in Ivan Sutherland’s work at MIT and the University of Utah and in work by the generation of students Sutherland and his colleague, David Evans, trained at the University of Utah. Having launched the field of interactive computer-aided design in his dissertation project, Sketchpad, between 1965-1968 Sutherland pursued an ambitious project to create what he called “[http://Citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.136.3720&rep=rep1&type=pdf the ultimate display],” an augmented reality system in which computer generated images of all sorts could be overlaid on scenes viewed through a head-mounted camera display system. Among the visionary suggestions Sutherland made in this early work was that interaction with the computer need not be based on keyboard or joystick linkages but could be controlled through computer-based sensing of the positions of almost any of our body muscles; and going further, he noted that while gestural control through hands and arms were obvious choices, machines to sense and interpret eye motion data could and would be built. “An interesting experiment, he claimed, “will be to make the display presentation depend on where we look.” Sutherland’s work inspired Scott Fisher, Brenda Laurel, and Jaron Lanier, the inventors of the dataglove and first virtual reality and telepresence systems at NASA-Ames Research Center, and Tom Furness at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio, who developed his own version of the ultimate display, based on eye and gesture tracking as a quasi “Darth-Vader Helmet” and integrated virtual cockpit. Furness was trying to solve problems of how humans interact with very complex machines, particularly the new high-tech F-16, F-14 and F-18 fighter planes, which were becoming so complicated that the amount of information a fighter pilot had to assimilate from the cockpit's instruments and command communications had become overwhelming. Furness’ solution was a cockpit that fed 3-D sensory information directly to the pilot, who could then fly by nodding and pointing his way through a simulated landscape below. [http://www.livingbooksaboutlife.org/books/Neurofutures (more...)]

			These pathbreaking projects on augmented and virtual reality, and telepresence controlled by gesture and eye-tracking systems inspired a number of visionary efforts over the next generation to go all the way in creating the ultimate display by eliminating the screen and tethered systems depicted above altogether by directly interfacing brains and machines. In what follows I will trace lines of synergy and convergence among several areas of neuroscience, genetics, engineering, and computational media that have given rise to brain/computer/machine interfaces that may at first glance seem like the stuff of science fiction or the techno-enthusiast predictions of Singularians and Transhumanists but may be closer than you think to being realized and quite possibly transforming human being as we know it in radical ways. I begin with work in brain-machine interfaces currently used in therapeutic neuroprosthetics emanating from the pioneering work of the Utah Intracortical Electrode Array, engage with the visionary speculations neuroengineers such as Miguel Nicolelis at Duke on their future deployment in ubiquitous computing networks, and contemplate the implications of these prospective developments for reconfigured selves. The second area I will explore is the convergence of work in the cognitive neurosciences on the massive role of affect in decision making and the leveraging of next-generation social media and smart devices as the “brain-machine” interfaces for measuring, data mining, modeling, and mapping affect in strategies to empower individuals to be more efficient, productive, and satisfied members of human collectives. If these speculations have merit, we may want to invest in “neurofutures”—very soon.

	Since the late 1990s the fields of brain sciences and neuroengineering have produced an astonishing array of discoveries that hold out the prospect of far reaching medical advances for the treatment of paralysis, limb loss, and a number of neurological impairments by interfacing intact neural structures with artificial neuroprosthetics devices. Among the most successful and justly celebrated sensory neuroprosthetics devices are cochlear and retinal implants that use electrical stimulation to recreate or partially restore perceptual capability. Niels Birnbaumer (Tübingen University) and his colleagues have developed brain-machine interfaces using scalp electroencephalography (EEG) signals which address critical clinical problems such as communication in “locked-in” patients and movement restoration in patients with spinal cord lesions and chronic stroke. Recently Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology has also been used for non-medical purposes, giving rise to a new generation of measurement devices that allow access and decoding of macroscopic brain states such as attention, performance capability, and emotion, in real-time. The signals extracted by BCI techniques are then used to improve and optimize man–machine interaction, enhancing human performance and even developing novel types of skills. Benjamin Blankertz, Michael Tangermann, Klaus-Robert Müller and their colleagues at the Machine Learning Lab of the TU Berlin have recently extended these devices into interfaces for videogames and other forms of interactive entertainment.		Since the late 1990s the fields of brain sciences and neuroengineering have produced an astonishing array of discoveries that hold out the prospect of far reaching medical advances for the treatment of paralysis, limb loss, and a number of neurological impairments by interfacing intact neural structures with artificial neuroprosthetics devices. Among the most successful and justly celebrated sensory neuroprosthetics devices are cochlear and retinal implants that use electrical stimulation to recreate or partially restore perceptual capability. Niels Birnbaumer (Tübingen University) and his colleagues have developed brain-machine interfaces using scalp electroencephalography (EEG) signals which address critical clinical problems such as communication in “locked-in” patients and movement restoration in patients with spinal cord lesions and chronic stroke. Recently Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) technology has also been used for non-medical purposes, giving rise to a new generation of measurement devices that allow access and decoding of macroscopic brain states such as attention, performance capability, and emotion, in real-time. The signals extracted by BCI techniques are then used to improve and optimize man–machine interaction, enhancing human performance and even developing novel types of skills. Benjamin Blankertz, Michael Tangermann, Klaus-Robert Müller and their colleagues at the Machine Learning Lab of the TU Berlin have recently extended these devices into interfaces for videogames and other forms of interactive entertainment.

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	== ''References''<br> ==		== ''References''<br> ==

	Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>		Sutherland, Ivan E.  "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.91.3584&rep=rep1&type=pdf A Head-Mounted Three Dimensional Display." In ''Proceedings of the December 9-11, 1968, Fall Joint Computer Conference'', part I, 757-64]. San Francisco, California: ACM, 1968.<br>Furness, Thomas A. III. "The Super Cockpit and Its Human Factors Challenges."''Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting Proceedings'' 30, no. 1 (1986 ): 48-52.<br>Furness, Thomas A. III, and Dean F. Kocian. "[http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-86-1/ Putting Humans into Virtual Space]." Technical Report, Human Interface Technology Lab, University of Washington (1986).<br><br>Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>

Lenoir at 14:06, 29 September 2011

2011-09-29T14:06:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:06, 29 September 2011
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	[[~~Neuroengineering~~\|Introduction]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces\|Brain-Machine Interfaces]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/OptogeneticMapping\|Optogenetic Mapping: Neurotechnology Renaissance]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AugmentedReality\|Ubiquious Computing and Augmented Reality]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AffectiveTurn\|The Affective Turn: Emotional Branding, Neuromarketing, and the New, New Media]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/ConcludingThoughts\|Concluding Thoughts ]]<br>		[[Neurofutures\|Introduction]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces\|Brain-Machine Interfaces]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/OptogeneticMapping\|Optogenetic Mapping: Neurotechnology Renaissance]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AugmentedReality\|Ubiquious Computing and Augmented Reality]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AffectiveTurn\|The Affective Turn: Emotional Branding, Neuromarketing, and the New, New Media]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/ConcludingThoughts\|Concluding Thoughts ]]<br>

	= Brain-Machine Interfaces =		= Brain-Machine Interfaces =

Lenoir at 16:42, 28 September 2011

2011-09-28T16:42:18Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:42, 28 September 2011
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	[[Neuroengineering\|Introduction]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces\|Brain-Machine Interfaces]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/OptogeneticMapping\|Optogenetic Mapping: Neurotechnology Renaissance]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AugmentedReality\|Ubiquious Computing and Augmented Reality]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AffectiveTurn\|The Affective Turn, Emotional Branding and ~~Neuromarketing~~]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/ConcludingThoughts\|Concluding Thoughts ]]<br>		[[Neuroengineering\|Introduction]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces\|Brain-Machine Interfaces]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/OptogeneticMapping\|Optogenetic Mapping: Neurotechnology Renaissance]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AugmentedReality\|Ubiquious Computing and Augmented Reality]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AffectiveTurn\|The Affective Turn: Emotional Branding, Neuromarketing, and the New, New Media]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/ConcludingThoughts\|Concluding Thoughts ]]<br>

	= Brain-Machine Interfaces =		= Brain-Machine Interfaces =

Lenoir at 13:06, 28 September 2011

2011-09-28T13:06:15Z

@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 <br>
-=== ''References''<br>  ===
+== ''References''<br>  ==
-Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br>
+Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br> Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br> Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br> Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br> Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br> Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br> Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br> Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br> Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br> Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>

Lenoir at 13:04, 28 September 2011

2011-09-28T13:04:22Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:04, 28 September 2011
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	[[Neuroengineering\|Introduction]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces\|Brain-Machine Interfaces]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/OptogeneticMapping\|Optogenetic Mapping: Neurotechnology Renaissance]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AugmentedReality\|Ubiquious Computing and Augmented Reality]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AffectiveTurn\|The Affective Turn, Emotional Branding and Neuromarketing]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/ConcludingThoughts\|Concluding Thoughts ]]~~<br>~~<br>		[[Neuroengineering\|Introduction]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/Brain-Machine Interfaces\|Brain-Machine Interfaces]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/OptogeneticMapping\|Optogenetic Mapping: Neurotechnology Renaissance]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AugmentedReality\|Ubiquious Computing and Augmented Reality]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/AffectiveTurn\|The Affective Turn, Emotional Branding and Neuromarketing]]<br>[[Neuroengineering/ConcludingThoughts\|Concluding Thoughts ]]<br>

	= Brain-Machine Interfaces =		= Brain-Machine Interfaces =

Lenoir: /* References */

2011-09-28T12:45:16Z

References

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:45, 28 September 2011
Line 32:		Line 32:

	Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br>		Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br>
	Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br>Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br>		Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br><br>
			Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br>
	Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br>		Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br>
	Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br>		Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br>

Lenoir: /* References */

2011-09-28T12:44:49Z

References

Lenoir: /* References */

2011-09-28T12:43:08Z

References

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:43, 28 September 2011
Line 31:		Line 31:
	=== ''References''<br> ===		=== ''References''<br> ===

	Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br> Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br>Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.		Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br>
			Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br>Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br>
	Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br>Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br>		Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br>
			Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br>
	Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br>		Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br>
			Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br>
	Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br>Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br>		Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br>
			Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br>
	Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br>Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br>

	Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br>		Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br>

	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br>

	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br>

	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br>
			Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>
	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.~~<br>~~<br>

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:44, 28 September 2011
Line 31:		Line 31:
	=== ''References''<br> ===		=== ''References''<br> ===

	Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br>		Mountcastle, Vernon B. "An Organizing Principle for Cerebral Function: The Unit Module and the Distributed System." In ''The Mindful Brain'', edited by Gerald M. Edelman and Vernon B Mountcastle, 7-50. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1978.<br><br>
	Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br>Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br>		Mountcastle, Vernon B. "The Columnar Organization of the Neocortex." ''Brain ''120, no. 4 (1997): 701-22.<br>Birbaumer, Niels. "Brain-Computer-Interface Research: Coming of Age." ''Clinical Neurophysiology'' 117, no. 3 (2006): 479-83.<br><br>
	Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br>		Blankertz, Benjamin, et al. "The Berlin Brain-Computer Interface: Non-Medical Uses of Bci Technology." ''Frontiers in Neuroscience'' 4 (2010).<br><br>
	Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br>		Bach-y-Rita, Paul, and Stephen W. Kercel. "Sensory Substitution and the Human-Machine Interface." ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 7, no. 12 (2003): 541-46.<br><br>
	Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br>		Horton, Jonathan C, and Daniel L Adams. "The Cortical Column: A Structure without a Function." ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences'' 360, no. 1456 (2005): 837-62.<br><br>
	Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br>		Jenkins, W.M. et al. "Functional Reorganization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Adult Owl Monkeys after Behaviorally Controlled Tactile Stimulation." ''Journal of Neurophysiology'' 63 (1990): 82-104.<br><br>
	Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br>		Maynard, Edwin M., Craig T. Nordhausen, and Richard A. Normann. "The Utah Intracortical Electrode Array: A Recording Structure for Potential Brain-Computer Interfaces." ''Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology'' 102, no. 3 (1997): 228-39.<br><br>
	Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br>		Nordhausen, Craig T., Edwin M. Maynard, and Richard A. Normann. "Single Unit Recording Capabilities of a 100 Microelectrode Array." ''Brain Research'' 726, no. 1-2 (1996): 129-40.<br><br>
	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, LA Baccala, RC Lin, and JK Chapin. "Sensorimotor Encoding by Synchronous Neural Ensemble Activity at Multiple Levels of the Somatosensory System" ''Science ''268 no. 5215, 2 June (1995): 1353-58.<br><br>
	Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br>		Chapin, John K., Karen A. Moxon, Ronald S. Markowitz, and Miguel A. L. Nicolelis. "Real-Time Control of a Robot Arm Using Simultaneously Recorded Neurons in the Motor Cortex." ''Nature Neuroscience'' 2, no. 7 (1999): 664-70.<br><br>
	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L, and John K. Chapin. "Controlling Robots with the Mind." ''Scientific American'', no. October (2002): 46-53.<br><br>
	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., Asif A. Ghazanfar, Barbara M. Faggin, Scott Votaw, and Laura M. O. Oliveira. "Reconstructing the Engram: Simultaneous, Multisite, Many Single Neuron Recordings." ''Neuron ''18, no. 4 (1997): 529-37.<br><br>
	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L., and Mikhail A. Lebedev. "Principles of Neural Ensemble Physiology Underlying the Operation of Brain-Machine Interfaces." ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience'' 10, no. 7 (2009): 530-40.<br><br>
	Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>		Nicolelis, Miguel A. L. ''Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains with Machines--and How It Will Change Our Lives''. New York: Times Books, 2011.<br>